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What was apartheid? When did it start and end? And what happened to those who broke the laws? Here's your guide to the system of discrimination imposed against non-whites in South Africa
What is apartheid? And what does apartheid mean? An Afrikaans word for ‘separation’ – literally, ‘separateness’ – apartheid was used to describe the discriminatory political and economic system of racial segregation which the white minority imposed on non-whites. It was implemented by the governing party, the National Party of South Africa, from 1948 until 1994. When did apartheid start? Segregation according to race wasn’t new to South Africa, as racial legislation in the country can be seen as early as 1806. But it was greatly extended with the Population Registration Act of 1950, which divided South Africans into four categories: Bantu (black South Africans), Coloured (those of mixed race), White and Asian (Indian and Pakistani South Africans). The Act was designed to preserve white supremacy in the country. Afua Hirsch: "The prejudice still surrounding Africa is absolutely rooted in a racist past" What was living under apartheid like? The effects of apartheid touched every aspect of daily life. By 1950, marriage and sexual relations between white and non-white South Africans were banned, while a series of Land Acts meant more than 80 per cent of the country’s land was set aside for the white minority. Black men and women were forced to live in ten so-called ‘black homelands’, where they were permitted to run businesses. To live and work in designated ‘white areas', they required permits. Hospitals, ambulances, buses and public facilities were all segregated, and non-white participation in government was denied. The impact on South Africa’s non-white population was horrific. Families were often split by the laws (if parents were black and white, their children were classed as ‘coloured’) and, between 1961 and 1994, 3.5 million people were forcibly removed from their homes. Their land was sold for a fraction of its price, plunging non-whites into severe poverty and despair. What happened to those who broke the laws of apartheid? South Africans caught disobeying apartheid could be imprisoned, fined or whipped, while those suspected of being in a racially mixed relationship were hunted down under the Immorality Acts of 1927 and 1950. Most ‘guilty’ couples were sent to prison. If a black man or woman was found without their ‘dompas’ – a passport containing fingerprints, photograph, personal details of employment and permission from the government to be in a particular part of the country – they could be imprisoned as well. More than 250,000 black South Africans were arrested each year under these Pass Laws. Who fought apartheid? In 1952, the first significant, non-violent political campaign took place – the Defiance Campaign. For four months, more than 8,000 volunteers deliberately flouted the laws of apartheid by refusing to carry passes, violating curfews and using public places and facilities designated for white-use only. The campaign, run by the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Indian Congress, generated a mass upsurge for freedom within South Africa itself, and attracted the attention of the United Nations. Other episodes of resistance took place throughout the period, including demonstrations, protests, strikes, political action and eventually armed resistance. In 1960, one act of protest saw at least 69 unarmed black people killed and 180 wounded when the police opened fire at a protest in the poor black township of Sharpesville. Why did Margaret Thatcher & the Queen clash over apartheid in South Africa? What was Nelson Mandela's role in resistance to apartheid? Nelson Mandela - President of the ANC Youth League – was Volunteer-in-Chief of the 1952 Defiance Campaign. He went on to play a leading role in generating large-scale resistance to apartheid and, in 1961, introduced a controversial, armed wing of the ANC – ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ (Spear of the Nation). Mandela’s involvement in both peaceful and armed resistance led to a 27-year prison sentence where he was subjected to appalling and inhumane conditions. His story became famous around the world. Peter Hain on Nelson Mandela: “A symbol for good leadership in the world” When did apartheid end? In 1973, the UN had denounced apartheid, but things came to a head in 1976, when police opened fire with tear gas and bullets against school children in Soweto. The violence caused outrage and a UN embargo on the sale of arms to South Africa was introduced, followed, in 1985, by economic sanctions by the UK and US. <img src="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/7/2015/11/GettyImages-158371674-889f69d.jpg" width="4962" height="3294" alt="Nelson Mandela and his wife, Winnie, raise fists upon Mandela's release from Victor-Verster Prison in Paarl after 27 years, 11 February 1990. (Photo by Alexander Joe/AFP via Getty Images)" title="Nelson Mandela and his wife, Winnie, raise fists upon Mandela's release from Victor-Verster Prison in Paarl after 27 years, 11 February 1990. (Photo by Alexander Joe/AFP via Getty Images)" /> With mounting international pressure, some apartheid laws were revoked. In 1990, the world watched as Nelson Mandela was released from prison, whereupon he continued to campaign. Four years later, on 26 April 1994, more than 22 million South Africans took part in the first multiracial parliamentary elections, voting in the ANC with Nelson Mandela sworn in as the country’s first black president. Read next: Is Africa a prisoner of its past? This article was first published in the November 2015 issue of BBC History Revealed
In the 18th and 19th centuries, falling behind on your debts could see you end up incarcerated, as happened to Charles Dickens, Daniel Defoe and others
What were debtors' prisons? They were institutions in which people who couldn’t pay their debts were incarcerated. For centuries, these jails formed a key part of the British prison system. When did debtors' prisons first appear? The system of throwing people into jail if they couldn’t pay money they owed dates from medieval times. By the 18th and 19th centuries, thousands of people were incarcerated in this manner in Britain, and the inmates of a number of prisons – including the Fleet and the Marshalsea in London – were exclusively debtors. What kinds of people served time in these prisons? Debt was a classless crime. Many people from the more ‘respectable’ sections of society found themselves in debtors’ prisons, having spent more than they could afford just to keep up appearances. Because men were held responsible for households’ financial matters, nearly all imprisoned debtors were male. However, wives and children were sometimes forced to join their husbands and fathers in prison if they didn’t have the means to support themselves. Bethlem Royal Hospital: why did the infamous Bedlam asylum have such a fearsome reputation? Traders who were unable to pay their creditors could be declared bankrupt, thereby usually avoiding jail, but for those with personal debts there was no such escape. Were there any famous debtors' who ended up in prison? Yes – a number of famous names were recorded as inmates in debtors’ prisons, including Robinson Crusoe author Daniel Defoe. Charles Dickens’ father, John, spent a few months at the Marshalsea in 1824 because he owed a local baker £40. Charles – then aged just 12 – had to work at a shoe-polish factory to help support his father and other members of his family who had joined John in prison. It was a humiliating episode from which the author later drew inspiration for his novel Little Dorrit. Did Charles Dickens invent Christmas as we know it today? What were conditions like in debtors’ prisons? In general, debtors were treated differently from regular prisoners, being allowed special privileges such as visiting rights, but conditions varied enormously, depending largely on each debtor’s financial situation. The prisons were privately run institutions that charged their residents for board and lodgings. Those who had managed to prevent their creditors from taking all of their money, or who had wealthy friends who could support them, might live in reasonable comfort, taking advantage of bars, restaurants and cafés on site. What was it like to be a Prisoner of War during the Hundred Years’ War? There were even some instances of debtors being allowed – for a fee – to serve their time outside the prisons altogether, provided they remained nearby. However, for those who were genuinely destitute, conditions could be intolerable. Inmates would resort to begging for coins from passers-by, and some starved to death. A parliamentary inquiry into prison conditions in 1729–30 found such appalling treatment of poor debtors that it resulted in the prosecution of a number of prisonkeepers for murder. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? How did you get out of debtors' prison? Debtors were not like modern prisoners who serve fixed sentences. In many cases they could secure their release only when they had paid their debts or reached an agreement with their creditors. Because debtors had to pay to be housed within the prisons, their debts could actually increase while incarcerated, so some would spend years or even decades in jail. In the 18th and 19th centuries, a number of laws were passed that did enable a proportion of debtors to be released if they fulfilled certain conditions. Escaping the workhouse: the Victorian war on child poverty When was the system of debtors' prisons abolished? The 1869 Debtors Act brought an end to debtors’ prisons in the UK. Elsewhere in the world, though, the system persists in various forms. This content first appeared in the January 2015 issue of BBC History Revealed
Your guide to the Field of the Cloth of Gold
The Field of the Cloth of Gold was a magnificent gathering – 18 days of revelry near Calais in June 1520 in which Henry VIII of England met with Francis I of France. What was the significance of these revels, and did they change relations between 'old enemies' England and France? Here's everything you need to know about the sumptuous summit...
What was the Field of the Cloth of Gold? It was a spectacular meeting between the kings of England and France, the likes of which had never been seen before. On 7 June 1520, Henry VIII met Francis I of France in a valley near Calais for a grand festival – 18 days of tournaments, feasts, masquerades and religious services. Due to its opulence and grandeur, the event was known as the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Officially, it was an event designed to solidify the friendship between the two nations; in reality, it was a chance for each king to show off his wealth, power and refinement. What was the Reformation? What was the purpose of the Field of the Cloth of Gold? It was hoped that the momentous event would mark an end to almost two centuries of animosity between England and France. Both Henry and Francis were at the height of their power, and their boisterous rivalry could easily have spilled over into war once again. Kings of England had been pressing claims to the throne of France since the early 14th century, in a series of on-and-off conflicts known as the Hundred Years’ War. Following in his predecessors’ footsteps, Henry VIII had invaded France in 1513 (while Francis was still heir to the French throne) and scored a victory at a skirmish dubbed the Battle of the Spurs; the following year peace was secured with the then king Louis XII. Francis’s ascension to the French throne in 1515 might have heralded a new chapter, but Henry saw Francis as a nobody who was merely squatting on his throne. The spectre of war was never far away. Agincourt: what really happened 9 medieval battles more significant than Agincourt Why was the Field of the Cloth of Gold held? It was a direct result of the Treaty of London, organised by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (the man who would later fail to secure papal blessing for Henry’s annulment to Catherine of Aragon). This treaty was a pact of non-aggression between the major powers of Europe, including England, France and the Holy Roman Empire. Among the terms was the commitment that Henry and Francis would meet to affirm their friendship. More from our explainer series... The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Where did the Field of the Cloth of Gold take place? Wolsey and his French counterpart Guillaume Gouffier decided that the meeting should take place on neutral ground – between English-owned Guînes in the Pale of Calais and the French town of Ardres. How hard was it to organise? It took just two months for tents, a tiltyard for jousting and a palace to be built for Henry and Catherine of Aragon. Keen to best his French rival, a type of ‘portable palace’ for the English court was built from timber and canvas and painted to resemble stone. Stained glass and terracotta roundels were used to give it the appearance of Hampton Court Palace; it even had a wine fountain. Of the French pavilions – all made by master craftsmen – the centrepiece was a 120ft tent decked completely in gold. This glittering edifice didn’t last long: strong gales meant it had to be taken down before the kings met. How jousting made a man of Henry VIII What happened when Henry VIII met Francis I? The atmosphere was tense right up until the actual meeting. The gold coats worn by the English party were briefly mistaken for armour and all was paused until the French were reassured that Francis was in no danger. Then the kings doffed their caps and embraced each other as if old friends. Why did Henry's beard almost cause a diplomatic incident? Plans for the meeting were briefly put on hold when, in 1519, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I died (both Henry and Francis put themselves forward as candidates for the imperial crown, but were usurped by Maximilian’s grandson, 19-year-old Charles V). In anticipation of the postponed summit, both monarchs agreed not to shave their beards until they met, so that they could compare them. Henry, however, ‘forgot’ this and arrived in France clean shaven. Francis’s mother was, reportedly, outraged. The situation was only prevented from becoming a diplomatic incident by the suggestion that Catherine of Aragon had implored her husband to shave, as she preferred him without facial hair. Francis was appeased and professed that his and Henry’s love for each other was “not in their beards but in their hearts”. 10 brilliant beards from history What happened for the rest of the 18-day festival? Feasting, sporting contests and revelry. To ensure there were no arguments, Henry and Francis allied themselves against brave volunteers when it came to the sporting events such as the joust. The queen consorts, Catherine and Claude (alongside Francis’ mother, Louise de Savoie, and Henry’s sister, Mary Tudor) each hosted the opposing king for feasts, dances and theatre. A dragon kite was made for the occasion, with Francis’s salamander symbol entwined with the Tudor dragon – a symbol of the two kings’ bond that awed the crowds. Did King Henry VIII and Francis I wrestle at the Field of the Cloth of Gold? Wrestling was the preferred entertainment when the weather turned sour. Completely unexpectedly, and after a few drinks, Henry challenged Francis to a wrestling match, but was easily defeated. He did, however, best the French king at archery, as his longbow proved too heavy for Francis to draw. On the penultimate day, a mass was held in a temporary chapel erected for the occasion, presided over by Cardinal Wolsey – the most senior clergyman in attendance – and each party’s choir sang. The kings parted ways on 24 June, but not before gifting each other the work of their finest goldsmiths. Was the Field of the Cloth of Gold a success? On 10 July, Henry met with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and both agreed to forge no new alliance with France for two years – diplomacy through expensive partying had not worked, it seemed. By mid-1521, France and the Holy Roman Empire were again at war and England was dragged into it – a peaceful Europe no more. The Field of the Cloth of Gold became a distant memory. What does the surviving painting of the event tell us? In c1545, more than 20 years after the extraordinary meeting, Henry VIII is supposed to have commissioned an oil painting of the events. The artist (or artists) is unknown. Painted so long after the event, it is filled with inaccuracies, but still gives an idea of the scale and number of people involved. On the right side of the painting, are the ovens that would have helped feed the 12,000 or so people at the event. The now aging and infirm Henry is shown in his younger glory three time over, decked in his finery as a true Renaissance prince: first on horseback in the procession, then embracing Francis in the magnificent gold tent towards the rear of the painting (though of course, the tent had been taken down by then), and finally watching a jousting match. The Henry on horseback is the most intriguing: his head has been cut out and replaced with a later portrait of the king that bears striking resemblance to works by Hans Holbein the Younger. Highlights from the c1545 painting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold View Gallery on the source website Hampton Court Palace is planning an exhibition to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Field of the Cloth of Gold when circumstances allow. hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace This content first appeared in the June 2020 issue of BBC History Revealed
In Renaissance Rome, one powerful family stood out as being steeped in sin and immorality: the Borgias. This dynasty produced two Popes, and became infamous for their nepotism, depravity and lust for power
Who were the Borgias? The Borgias were a powerful family in Renaissance Italy. Despite the fact that they produced two Popes, their name has become associated with all kinds of dark deeds. How did the Borgias first come to prominence? They were originally a noble Spanish dynasty, who switched to Italy when Alfonso di Borgia (1378-1458) was made a cardinal in 1444. Eleven years later, he was appointed as Pope – taking the name Callixtus III – and gave a leg-up to his nephew Rodrigo Borgia. In 1492, Rodrigo kept the family tradition going and also succeeded to the papacy. As the hugely controversial Pope Alexander VI, he began to accumulate a vast amount of land and power for himself and his illegitimate children. Holy smoke, antipopes and power struggles: a guide to popes and the papacy Could a Pope have children? As a priest, Rodrigo was supposed to live in celibacy, but this did not prevent him having a number of mistresses and fathering several children – even while Pope. He was not the only priest to have had children, but the way he openly acknowledged many of them and sought to advance their careers was unusual. Q&A: Has there ever been a married Pope? Which of his children were the most noteworthy? Soon after becoming Pope, Rodrigo had his son Cesare made a cardinal. Cesare, however, was not suited to the religious life and instead became a military commander, where he conducted a number of campaigns in the sole hope of creating a Borgia principality in Italy that would survive the death of his father. He was forced to abandon this dream when his father died in 1503 and was replaced as Pope by Julius II, who was instantly hostile to the Borgia family. Cesare ended up leaving Italy and dying in Spain during a skirmish. Another notable child of Rodrigo’s was Lucrezia Borgia, used by her father as a diplomatic pawn. Three marriages, which were politically advantageous for the Borgias, were arranged for her. Her first was annulled due to supposed non-consummation, while her second husband was murdered by Cesare’s servants. Her third and final marriage, to the Duke of Ferrara, was much happier and she managed to achieve a comfortable life at court, where she became a patron of the arts. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Why do the Borgias have such a bad reputation and what was the Banquet of Chestnuts? The Borgias were accused of a catalogue of sins, among them murder, incest, poisoning and bewitching. They are also infamously associated with all manner of sexual depravity. The most notorious and sordid tale was the ‘Banquet of Chestnuts’ in 1501 – a mass orgy supposedly held by Cesare in Rome, and featuring 50 naked prostitutes who spent the evening entertaining the dignitaries, as well as the holy family. Part of the reason for this black reputation is that Rodrigo and Cesare were ruthless and highly ambitious men, prepared to use violence and trickery to increase their power. It is not for nothing that Cesare was a great inspiration to the writer Niccolo Machiavelli. Why did the papacy move to Avignon in the 14th century? Were the Borgias really that bad? Many of the extreme allegations made against the Borgias don’t stand up to scrutiny and seem likely to have been fabricated by their enemies, of whom there were many. Coming from Spain, the Borgias were always viewed as outsiders in Italy. What popularity they acquired, moreover, was diminished by their constant efforts to gain land and power at the expense of others. Their dynasty was brief – after Rodrigo died, they faded as quickly as they had risen, leaving few friends remaining who would defend their memory from the rumours that immediately began swirling around them. Has history been unfair to the Borgias? It almost certainly has. The Borgias are remembered as sexual deviants and murderers, but when the more unlikely accusations are removed, their behaviour was not necessarily worse than that of many other powerful Italian families in the Renaissance era. They were far from saints, but don’t deserve to be remembered as the epitome of villainy. This article was first published in the October 2015 issue of BBC History Revealed
Internationally respected merchants and traders, these ancient peoples left behind one very significant, long-lasting legacy
Who were the Phoenicians? The Phoenicians were an ancient people who lived in what is now Lebanon (and some surrounding areas). They flourished from c1500 to c300 BC and were famed traders. Where did the Phoenicians come from? Ancient writers believed the Phoenicians had arrived from the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean, but modern evidence suggests the society developed c3000 BC out of the Canaanite people in the same region. The first Phoenician city, Byblos, dates back to around this time, but it would be more than 1,500 years before the other great Phoenician cities emerged. Where was Phoenicia? Was it a country, or an empire? Neither, in the way that we would understand it today. The Phoenicians were more like a confederation of independent city states, the best known of which were Byblos, Tyre, Sidon and Arwad. The Phoenicians developed trading networks across the Mediterranean and, to support these, they established small colonies along the coasts of Europe and North Africa – reaching as far west as modern-day Spain. One Phoenician colony, Carthage (in what is now Tunisia), ended up becoming a major power in its own right. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Where did the name ‘Phoenicians’ come from? It was coined by the ancient Greeks. A popular theory is that the name derived from the Greek word for the colour of an expensive purple dye that the Phoenicians extracted from sea snails. The Phoenicians would not have referred to themselves by this name, and the term they used is not known. Timeline: the evolution of ancient empires Why did the Phoenicians focus so extensively on trade? It was probably because of the geography of their lands. The region was not suited to farming, but had a long Mediterranean coast as well as cedar forests – a wood prized across the ancient world. So trading made good economic sense and, as the centuries progressed, they became highly skilled at it. They were renowned for the speed of their ships, their genius for navigation and their craftsmanship. The Phoenicians traded all manner of things including linen, wine, spices, slaves and, of course, cedar wood. How did the Phoenicians relate to the other ancient civilisations of their day? Much of what we now know about the Phoenicians is based on the reports of other peoples who encountered them, including the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Israelites. As well as trading with these civilisations, the Phoenicians often lived under the domination of the more powerful ones, beginning with ancient Egypt. Some of these overlords allowed the Phoenicians to operate relatively freely, valuing their trading and communication networks. One ruler who went to war against the Phoenicians, however, was the Macedonian king Alexander the Great. In 332 BC, he captured the Phoenician city of Tyre and put thousands of its inhabitants to the sword, selling tens of thousands more into slavery. Nearly 200 years later, Rome crushed the great Phoenician outpost of Carthage and by 64 BC the Phoenician city states had all been incorporated into the Roman Empire. How Hannibal beat the Alps but couldn’t beat Rome Robin Lane Fox explains how the classical general, famed for his crossing of the Alps, was defeated because he couldn't fulfil his promise of liberation from Rome... What was the Phoenicians’ greatest legacy? It was undoubtedly their alphabet. Created c1000 BC, the Phoenician writing system of 22 letters was in itself not very revolutionary. In fact, it was really only a modification of similar alphabets that already existed in the region. Yet, because they were traders, the Phoenicians spread their alphabet all over the Mediterranean region and introduced it to people of many different civilisations. It soon became a valuable tool for international commerce and was almost certainly the source of the Greek alphabet, which later inspired the one that most Western languages – including English – use today. This content first appeared in the May 2015 issue of BBC History Revealed Rob Attar is the editor of BBC History Magazine
What do we know about this fraternal organisation, and what does it have to do with the master craftsmen of the Middle Ages?
When and where did Freemasonry originate? There is still a great deal of speculation about how the fraternal organisation of Freemasonry originated. The earliest known texts relating to masonry date to 1390–1425, and state that the craft of masonry began with the Greek mathematician Euclid, in c300 BC Egypt, arriving in England during the reign of King Æthelstan in the 10th century. The earliest English documents on Freemasonry also date to the 14th century and appear to refer to a worker in freestone – a type of sandstone or limestone that was used to create ornamental masonry. Some historians have interpreted the word ‘free’ to mean that the mason was not enslaved or bound to a master, but the truth of this is unclear. What was a mason? Highly skilled, a Master Mason combined the skills of architect, builder, craftsman, designer and engineer, using a set of compasses, a marked rope or staff, and a set square to create the magnificent cathedrals and castles of the Middle Ages. The size and scale of the projects undertaken and the scarcity of the tools used led many to believe that Masons possessed some sort of magical secret. Listen | Historian John Dickie, author of The Craft: How the Freemasons Made the Modern World, sifts fact from fiction in the history of a much misunderstood organisation What were Masonic lodges? Workshops based at the site of major building work were originally referred to as ‘lodges’, a word later used to refer to a community of masons in one place. From the 1660s, we see gentleman joining nonoperative lodges and becoming ‘masons’ – it was this ‘speculative freemasonry’ that evolved into the organisation we see today. In 1717, the first Freemason Grand Lodge was formed, when four London lodges met at a tavern in St Paul’s churchyard and declared themselves to be a Grand Lodge – the world’s first. A history of Freemasonry: from Enlightenment ideals to satanic conspiracy stories The movement was designed to allow men to socialise together, avoiding the topics of religion and politics. The Grand Lodge of Ireland was subsequently formed in 1725, followed by the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1736. Mirroring the expansion of the British Empire, Freemasonry, too, expanded greatly overseas, and by 1900, some 2,800 Grand Lodges had been formed across the globe, including North America and Europe. Well-known individuals such as George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Edward Jenner, Walter Scott and William IV were all members of the organisation. What was the status of women in Freemasonry? Masonic lodges were, and still are, restricted to men, as were the stonemason guilds of the Middle Ages, but during the 1740s, Lodges of Adoption began to appear in France, attached to the traditional men-only lodges and operating under their direction. The first mixed Grand Lodge, Le Droit Humain, was formed in France in 1893, open to women and men who were “just, upright and free, of mature age, sound judgment and strict morals”. Co-Masonry was brought to England in 1902 by social reformer and campaigner for women’s rights, Annie Besant, who was herself initiated in France. A women-only order was formed six years later, and by 1935, it was an exclusively female organisation. 100 Women Who Changed the World Have any women ever joined a men-only lodge? There are some alleged cases. In the 18th century, Elizabeth Aldworth is said to have secretly watched the proceedings of a lodge meeting. On discovering the breach of their secrecy, they were obliged to admit her and she was seen in public wearing her Masonic regalia. More from our explainer series... The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel What about the Masonic conspiracy theories – and are they real? Conspiracy theories have followed the Freemasons since the 18th century. Among them are claims that the Freemasons are connected to the Illuminati; that they worship the Devil; and even that they faked the Apollo Moon landings. Symbols, images and ritual remain an important part of the Freemason movement, the learning and performing of which takes place behind closed doors in member-only ceremonies. This article was first published in the January 2017 edition of BBC History Revealed. Read more of our history explainer series, including guides to the Luddites, the Silk Road and the Punic Wars...
For nearly 80 years, Rome and Carthage fought for supremacy in a series of wars that saw Hannibal lead elephants over the Alps and Rome suffer one of its worst military defeats at Cannae. Find out how Rome eventually triumphed in the Punic Wars, and why they began in the first place
Who fought in the Punic Wars and how many were there? The Punic Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the powerful cities of Carthage and Rome between 264 BC and 146 BC. The period is usually split into three distinct wars – the First Punic War was fought from 264–241 BC, the Second Punic War from 218–201 BC and the Third Punic War from 149–146 BC. If these were wars between Rome and Carthage, why are they called the Punic Wars? The word ‘Punic’ derives from the word ‘Phoenician’ (phoinix in Greek or punicus in Latin), and refers to the citizens of Carthage, who were descended from the Phoenicians. How did the First Punic War begin? Rome in 264 BC was relatively small – a far cry from its later superiority – and it was the city of Carthage (located in what we now know as Tunisia) that reigned supreme in the ancient world. Tensions arose between the cities over who should have control of the strategic island of Sicily. Although relations were generally friendly, Rome’s intervention in a dispute on the island saw them explode into conflict. In 264 BC, war was officially declared for control of Sicily. Rome built and equipped over 100 ships to take on the Carthaginian navy and finally, in 241 BC, was able to win a decisive victory against the Carthaginians at sea. In the peace treaty that followed, Rome gained Sicily – its first overseas province. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Why was there a Second Punic War? In 219 BC, Hannibal (son of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general during the First Punic War) broke the tentative peace between the two cities and laid siege to Saguntum (in eastern Spain), then an ally of Rome. Furious at Hannibal’s audacity, the Romans demanded that he be handed over for punishment. This order was ignored by the Carthaginian senate, and so the Second Punic War began. Roman General Publius Cornelius Scipio, later known as Scipio Africanus, emerged in opposition to Hannibal during this conflict. Is this where the elephants come into it? Yes. Famously, the Hannibal proceeded to march his forces over the Alps, along with his elephants, and conquered much of northern Italy. Hannibal faced the Romans, including Scipio, at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC – he won a great victory that saw some 70,000 Romans killed compared to just 6,000 Carthaginians. What was the Roman Empire’s greatest defeat? It might be Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 Not a man to be beaten, Scipio – an admirer of Hannibal – turned the situation around at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. Hannibal’s elephant charge was deflected back into the Carthaginian ranks, followed by a combined cavalry and infantry advance, which crushed Hannibal’s forces. Carthage was ordered to surrender its navy, pay Rome a war debt of 200 talents of gold every year for 50 years, and was forbidden from waging war with anyone without Roman approval. How Hannibal beat the Alps but couldn’t beat Rome Robin Lane Fox explains how the classical general, famed for his crossing of the Alps, was defeated because he couldn't fulfil his promise of liberation from Rome... If Carthage had been crushed, why did the Third Punic War break out in 149 BC? Carthage paid its war debt to Rome over 50 years, until 149 BC. Then, deeming the treaty to be complete, the city went to war against Numidia, in what is now Algeria. Not only did they lose the war, but Carthage incurred the wrath of Rome, who again deemed its old foe a threat. 10 key Roman dates you need to know This time, Carthage was to be put down permanently. That same year, a Roman embassy was sent to Carthage to demand that the city be dismantled and moved inland away from the coast. When the Carthaginians refused, the Third Punic War broke out. Roman forces besieged Carthage for three years, until it finally fell in 146 BC. The city was sacked and burned to the ground where it lay in ruin for more than a century, with its inhabitants sold into slavery. How did a crow help Rome defeat Carthage? What happened after the Punic Wars? By the time the Punic Wars ended, Rome had blossomed from a small trading city into a formidable powerhouse. With no serious threat coming from Carthage, Rome had the opportunity to expand, eventually becoming the empire that would dominate the known world. This content first appeared in the February 2016 issue of BBC History Revealed
Your guide to the fall of Rome and the collapse of the Roman Empire
At its height, the empire that bloomed from the Rome stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to Northern Africa and Mesopotamia, making it one of the greatest powers in world history. What led to its downfall? And who was its last emperor? BBC History Revealed examines why this ancient empire waned
When did Rome actually fall? The fall of the Roman empire is one of the most debated questions among historians of the ancient world. Its collapse has been blamed on a number of different reasons, but even the exact date of its end is still questioned. Some historians give AD 476 as the date the empire ended. Other historians say that the Roman empire never actually ended at all, claiming that its eastern half continued in the form of the Byzantine empire. Who was Rome's last emperor? The last Roman emperor is generally accepted as being Romulus Augustus (aka Augustulus). A teenager when he took the imperial throne, he ruled for just over ten months before being deposed by the Germanic leader Odoacer. Your guide to the Roman empire: when it was formed, why it split and how it failed, plus its most colourful emperors When did the cracks first begin to show in the empire? Again, this is a heavily debated question. Many date the beginning of Rome’s end to about AD 190, when the empire started to come under attack from various tribes, including the fierce Germanic tribes known as the Goths and the Vandals. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Was it purely outside factors that caused the empire's fall? No. There are several contributing factors, some of which were taking place within the empire itself. Severe financial crisis caused by wars and overspending had led to over-taxation and inflation. This in turn saw Romans fleeing to the countryside as a way of avoiding the taxman. Who was Attila the Hun, the barbarian ruler who terrorised the Romans? In addition, the empire’s expansion had slowed down considerably by the second century, meaning that the steady stream of labour provided by slaves brought in from conquered lands had also halted, causing a major labour deficit. Agricultural and commercial production declined as a result, which in turn affected trade. Government corruption and political instability were also contributing factors to the empire’s eventual fall. A series of weak emperors from the second century had seen more than 20 men on the imperial throne in just 75 years, thanks in part to the Praetorian Guard – bodyguards to the emperor – which was using its power to decide to promote, or kill off, would-be emperors. The Senate, too, was rife with corruption and was unable, or unwilling, to rein in the excesses of its rulers. The people began to lose faith in its leaders. Cheese, angry gods and shoddy surgeons: the unlikely deaths of Roman emperors Civil war also weakened the empire. The third century had seen emperor Alexander Severus murdered by his own troops while on campaign – the ensuing political instability launched the empire into a crippling civil war, which saw dozens of emperors come and go. This period of conflict was exacerbated by external threats from outside forces and continued well into the fourth century. Rome’s famous legions also began to falter, and it became increasingly difficult to recruit men to its army. Foreign mercenaries who were recruited – including the Goths and barbarians who were trying to take the Romans’ land – failed to have the same loyalty to the empire and often turned against their employers. After the empire: the fall of Roman Britain What other factors are thought to have contributed to the empire's fall? Rome’s influence was reduced significantly in the third century AD, when Emperor Diocletian took the decision to split governance of the empire: the Western Empire had its capital in Milan, while the Eastern Empire would have its capital in Byzantium, later known as Constantinople. Although the move made the empire easier to govern, the two halves drifted apart and failed to work in unison to see off external threats. The eastern half continued to grow in wealth, but the western part, which saw economic decline and continued barbarian attacks, eventually fell in the fifth century. Read more | Could you have survived as a Roman soldier? Some historians also cite Christianity as a factor in Rome’s fall. The religion was legalised in AD 313 and became a state religion in AD 380. Although this decree saw an end to the persecution of Christians, it also saw the decline of the Roman religion, which worshipped many gods and viewed the emperor as a divine being. This content first appeared in the October 2017 issue of BBC History Revealed
An extraordinary endeavour to bridge East and West, this snaking trade route also became a conduit of culture, religion and ideas. BBC History Revealed discovers how this vital artery sprung up from a second-century BC rumour
What was the Silk Road? The Silk Road was a trading route – or network of trading routes – that connected China with the West in ancient times. The name ‘Silk Road’ was only coined in the 19th century, but the routes it refers to originated around the second century BC. How did the Silk Road come into being? In 138 BC the Chinese emperor dispatched an envoy called Zhang Qian to make contact with a tribal group in central Asia. When Zhang arrived, he was captured and kept as a prisoner for several years, but was eventually freed and returned to China where he told, among other things, of the magnificent Arabian horses he had encountered. The Chinese authorities were keen to acquire these horses and so began a process of long-distance trade with central Asia. Meanwhile, from the west, central Asia had come into contact with European civilisations, initially through the conquests of Alexander the Great who reached as far as India in the fourth century BC. Later on, it was the growing Roman empire that was coming to dominate the region and so the emerging Silk Road acted as a bridge between the East and the West, through central Asia and the Middle East. More from our explainer series... What happened to the city of Babylon and the Tower of Babel The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Why is it called the Silk Road? It’s because silk was one of the key goods traded along the route. The Chinese had learned how to manufacture this luxurious material from silkworms perhaps as early as the third millennium BC and, for a long time, they were the only people who could produce it. It was highly prized by other civilisations – especially Ancient Rome – and so it became one of China’s main exports and the currency by which they often paid for the goods that they required. Read more | What was traded on the Silk Road? The name Silk Road is a little misleading, though, because silk was only one of a large number of different items that were traded on the network, which also included textiles, precious metals, spices and furs. How did these items travel across the Silk Road? The Silk Road stretched around 4,000 miles, so extremely few people would have travelled the entire length of it themselves. Generally goods were carried by a number of different traders, having been exchanged several times along the way. The traders themselves journeyed in groups – sometimes containing hundreds of people – riding on camels or horses or occasionally travelling by foot. Some items were also carried by sea, as maritime Silk Roads developed. Read more | What were the Opium Wars? Was it just goods that travelled on the Silk Road? Not at all. In fact, perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Silk Road is the mixing of cultures and ideas that it facilitated. Along the road, people from many different civilisations got to meet each other and the results were extraordinary. Religions in particular were spread along the road and this is how, for example, Buddhism travelled from India to China. Technology was also disseminated via the Silk Road, including the Chinese inventions of paper and gunpowder. Read more | 10 facts about the Great Wall of China When did the Silk Road come to an end? The road was still in use in the late middle ages and famously the Venetian explorer Marco Polo travelled along it to China in the 13th century (although his story is increasingly questioned by historians). However, it went into decline not long afterwards for a variety of reasons, including attacks on the Chinese empire and the growth of European sea routes to the East. Nowadays, the Silk Road has become a popular route for tourism, while policymakers speak about developing new silk roads across Asia to boost economic growth in the continent. This content first appeared in the August 2015 issue of BBC History Revealed
What began as a feud over control of the Suez Canal led to a military debacle that Britain hoped to brush under the carpet. BBC History Revealed explains how the Suez Crisis of 1956 became such a stark wake-up call
What was the Suez Crisis? With relations between the West and East on a knife’s edge during the Cold War, Britain and France secretly colluded with Israel to stage a military attack on the Suez Canal in Egypt. The aim of this ‘Tripartite Aggression’ was to bring the strategic waterway under their control. Why was the Suez Canal so important? The canal had been created in the 1860s by the French and Egyptian governments. By slicing through the slim stretch of land connecting Africa to Asia, the Red Sea and Mediterranean were joined, beckoning a new era of international trade and travel. So crucial was this 120-mile passage that the British quickly bought up a third share. Then in 1882, they invaded Egypt and took control of everything. This is just one reason why, after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, new president Gamal Abdel Nasser was virulently anti-British. How significant was the Suez Crisis? "What this all suggests is that while the overall significance of the crisis may have been exaggerated, ‘Suez’ has left a lasting mark on our collective memory which can still be deployed today for political and partisan purposes." – Dr Andrew Jones explains how significant the Suez Crisis really was, and why it continues to resonate in British popular memory. Who was Gamal Abdel Nasser? Gamal Abdel Nasser was a postman’s son who saw how imperial powers such as Britain and France treated the Middle East as a trade-grabbing playground, and swore to force their troops out. But the construction of the Aswan Dam across the Nile, which Nasser saw as central to his country’s modernisation, required financial backing from the West. At first, he was happy to play the US and the USSR against each other. His luck ran out, however, when he accepted Communist arms and the Americans pulled out of the Aswan Dam project. In retaliation, he nationalised the Suez Canal in 1956, wresting control from the British- and French-controlled Suez Canal Company, with the intention of charging for its use. This, Britain and France quickly agreed, was totally unacceptable. More from our explainer series... The Great Depression – why did it happen, and how long did it last? The Ottoman Empire – was it really history’s longest-lasting empire? What were the Opium Wars? The Spanish Inquisition – was it as brutal as it is popularly believed to be? Was a British and French military response inevitable? The two powers certainly agreed that the Suez Canal should be taken back, and Nasser deposed if possible, but outright military action was not viable. Not only would the United Nations never agree to it, but the British and French people were against anything that could risk war, which led to protests. Therefore, they secretly lobbied Israel to stage an invasion and assume control, providing the pretext for them to step in as ‘peacemakers’. Battleground of empires: Cairo in 5 cultures Operation Musketeer began in late October 1956 when ten Israeli brigades entered Egypt and overran the forces holding the Suez Canal. Yet Egypt refused to take the invasion lying down, and it wasn’t long before the bloodshed escalated. Although militarily successful, few were deceived by the ruse, and the world’s superpowers soon flexed their muscles. So were the Americans and Russians in agreement? Not quite, but the US knew how to pick its battles. While the Russians threatened to get involved on Egypt’s side, so as to prevent what may have been an inevitable build up of aggression, US President Dwight Eisenhower ordered Britain and France to withdraw. The realisation that they had no option but to comply was a humiliating climb-down for the British and French, and a clear, painful sign that their days as world powers were truly over. Does history show that age affects US presidents’ performance? Plus, how old is too old? Did the backlash go beyond wounded national pride? The Suez Crisis – which ended with thousands of casualties on both sides – was seen as a decisive blow for the British government, and Conservative Prime Minister Anthony Eden resigned in January 1957. This was a triumph for the anti-establishment forces who protested against his government, and marked a shift in British society that would become more marked during the 1960s. Elizabeth II and her prime ministers What was the lasting legacy of the Suez Crisis? The post-imperial actions of Britain (and other Western powers) within the volatile Middle East – including the creation of Israel following World War II – lie at the roots of many major problems in the region today. Why Britain punched above its weight At the time, even with the empire winding down, British foreign policy still envisioned the nation as the world’s policemen. The Suez Crisis was a rude wake-up call. The very word ‘Suez’ became a codeword for the British, warning of hubris and embarrassment. And 60 years later, the Suez Crisis is remembered as a watershed moment in the decline of the British Empire, severely denting the culture of deference that had defined the country. This content first appeared in the April 2016 issue of BBC History Revealed