Middle East

Representations of digits from the ninth century, 11th century and the present day

Digital revolution: the evolution of Hindu-Arabic numerals

Kurdish fighters in north-west Iran, 1918

The history of the Kurds in Iraq: “the largest people never to have achieved statehood”

Richard I on a Chertsey tile

Does Richard I deserve his reputation as a martial genius?

Melisende of Jerusalem

Melisende of Jerusalem: the queen of a crusader kingdom

Men from Bethlehem in Jerusalem in 1894, when the territory identified as Palestine was part of the Ottoman empire. At the start of the 19th century Palestine's population was mostly Arab, with a small Jewish minority, but from the 1880s waves of settlers rapidly augmented the Jewish population (Culture Club/Getty Images)

Israel and the Palestinians: a history of conflict in 8 key episodes

The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II reaches an accord with the Muslim sultan al-Kamil in 1229 that saw Jerusalem handed to the crusaders. This is just one instance of cooperation between east and west in the era (though the two men never actually met in person). (Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images)

Muslim-Crusader interactions: a clash of civilisations?

Alex von Tunzelmann responds to your questions on the 1956 Suez Crisis: a diplomatic debacle that dealt a serious blow to Britain’s standing in the postwar world. (Image by Getty Images)

The Suez Crisis: everything you wanted to know

Katherine Pangonis chronicles the formidable line of female rulers that shaped the crusader states of the Holy Land in the 12th century

Rebels, hostages and diplomats: royal women of the crusader states

Alexander the Great on his horse, Bucephalus

Bucephalus: why is Alexander the Great’s horse famous?

A medieval illustration of women fighting and toiling alongside men during a siege

Crusader queens: the formidable female rulers of Jerusalem

A fanciful engraving imagines Peter the Hermit presenting Pope Urban II (centre) with a letter from Simeon II

Launching the First Crusade

Illustration of a mummy with mask

How to make an Egyptian mummy in 6 steps

The Trojan Horse – seen in the 2004 film Troy

How much of the legend of Troy is real?

UNSPECIFIED - CIRCA 1754: Bayeux Tapestry 1667: William the Conqueror's Norman cavalry setting out to meet Harold II's English forces, Battle of Hastings, 14 October 1066. Textile Linen (Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images)

From the British Isles to Italy and Spain: how the Normans reshaped Europe

Cleopatra's face on a coin

The face of Cleopatra: was she really so beautiful?