Sun gods and goddesses: 16 solar deities from world history

Another common trait across numerous mythologies is the deity riding a chariot across the sky, ensuring that each day will come. Some even battle in the underworld come night, so they might shine again.

With ancient societies so reliant on agriculture, people worshipped these deities to bring good crop yields or for the energy and strength for survival. Symbolically, the Sun could also represent justice or wisdom.

Each culture found their own way to worship the life-giving Sun. Here, we explore the origins and roles of the powerful sun deities that have gone down in history (then back up, every morning).

Sun gods and goddesses: which are the most famous in world history?

• Amaterasu – Japanese goddess of the Sun and the queen of heaven and creation
• Apollo – Greek god of light, music, prophecy, healing and more
• Aten – the solar disc in ancient Egypt
• Helios – Greek god of the Sun and a son of Titans
• Huitzilopochtli – Aztec god of the Sun and war
• Inti – Incan god of the Sun and patron deity of the Incan empire
• Kinich Ahau – Mayan god of the Sun
• Lisa – African god of the Sun to the Fon people
• Ra – Egyptian god of the sun and father of all the Egyptian gods
• Sol – Roman god of the Sun
• Sól – Norse goddess of the Sun
• Sol Invictus – Roman god of the ‘unconquered Sun’
• Surya – Hindu god of the Sun
• Tonatiuh – Aztec god of the ‘Fifth Sun’
• Xihe – Chinese goddess of the Sun and mother of the Ten Suns
• Shamash – Mesopotamian god of the Sun and a divine judge

Greek Sun gods

Helios

Name: Helios

Origin: Greek

Known as: God of the Sun, often regarded as a Titan

Family: Son of Hyperion and Theia, brother of Selene (goddess of the Moon) and Eos (goddess of the dawn)

Revered as the embodiment of the Sun, the Greek god Helios was believed to drive a horse-drawn chariot from east to west across the sky each day, marking the passage of day into night.

Depictions often show him as a handsome man adorned in purple robes with a crown of Sun rays encircling his head. Although Helios was venerated across the Hellenistic world, his most significant cult centres were in Corinth and on the island of Rhodes, where he was patron.

In fact, the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, depicts him. Erected around 280 BC, it stood for less than 60 years before collapsing in an earthquake.

Apollo

Name: Apollo

Origin: Greek

Known as: God of light, music, dance, poetry, archery, truth, prophecy and healing

Family: Son of the chief Greek deity Zeus and Leto (goddess of motherhood); twin brother of Artemis (goddess of the hunt and the Moon)

While Helios was associated with the physical Sun, Apollo represented the more abstract ideas of light and enlightenment.
As the son of Zeus and Leto – born on the island of Delos alongside his twin sister, Artemis –Apollo held a prominent position among the Olympian deities. He was one of the most multi-faceted deities in the mythology, covering domains including music and dance, truth and prophecy, medicine and healing.

His association with the arts meant the handsome and young Apollo was often depicted carrying a lyre, which he played to enchant both gods and mortals. He was also patron of the Muses, the goddesses of literature, science and the arts.

Yet Apollo could equally be seen as an archer, able to bring disease and destruction with his arrows and known for his sometimes merciless retribution.

Perhaps his most famous myth is his pursuit of Daphne, a nymph who did not reciprocate his love and transformed into a laurel tree to escape his advances. In her honour, Apollo adopted the laurel as his sacred plant.

Honourable mentions:

Eos | Goddess of the dawn, who rose each morning from the edge of the river Oceanus to deliver light

Hyperion | Titan god of heavenly light, considered one of the four pillars of the cosmos

Roman Sun gods

Sol

Name: Sol

Origin: Roman

Known as: God of the sun

Family: None spoken of in the mythology

Helios’s counterpart among the Roman gods was Sol, who would be similarly depicted driving a four-horse chariot across the sky and wearing a solar crown.

Among the temples dedicated to Sol in Rome, there was a shrine at the Circus Maximus, the chief arena for chariot racing, and Sol had another on the Quirinal (one of the seven hills of Rome). There, every 9 August, an annual sacrifice was left for Sol, which evolved into an act to commemorate Julius Caesar’s victory at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.

Romans would gather to pay homage and seek his favour for bountiful harvests and protection from the darkness.

Sol Invictus

Name: Sol Invictus

Origin: Roman

Known as: God of the ‘unconquered Sun’

Family: Associated with the earlier Sun god, Sol

His name meaning ‘unconquered Sun’, Sol Invictus was a later adaptation of Sol, while also amalgamating influences from Eastern religions. He was a powerful figure, often wearing military attire.

In the third century AD, the roman emperor Aurelian revived the cult of Sol Invictus by establishing him as the primary deity in the Roman empire. Sol Invictus was celebrated with the festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti on 25 December, the date that Romans celebrated the winter solstice.

It is debated whether this celebration predated Christmas, or if it was chosen to be on the same day as the Christian festival. Regardless, Sol Invictus held his lofty position in the Roman pantheon until the spread of Christianity.

Honourable mentions:

Aurora | Goddess of the dawn, who drove a chariot across the sky to usher in the new day

Janus | God of beginnings and transitions, identified with the Sun and Moon

Hindu Sun Gods

Surya

Name: Surya

Origin: Hindu

Known as: God of the sun

Family: Son of Kashyapa (one of the Saptarishis, the seven ancient sages of the Rigveda) and Aditi (mother of the Adityas, a group of celestial deities)

Surya is a prominent god of Hinduism going back to the Vedic texts of c1500 BC, once one of the five major deities alongside

Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and Ganesha. He was worshipped as a representation of all life.

Like other Sun gods, Surya was shown riding a chariot, but his would be drawn by either seven horses or a single, seven-headed horse. The number represented the seven days of the week.

His head would be encircled by sunlight, he carried lotus flowers in his hands, and he wore a close-fitting coat and high boots (or Scythian dress, which may suggest that he was influenced by religious iconography or Iran).

According to the Puranas (ancient Hindu texts), the weapons of the gods were forged from pieces trimmed from Surya, highlighting his importance in divine protection.

With temples dedicated to him across India, such as Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, worshippers perform Surya Namaskar (sun salutation) during their morning rituals, which pay homage and seek his blessings.

Honourable mentions:

Aryaman | God of the mid-morning Sun, one of the early Vedic Hindu deities

Egyptian Sun gods

Ra

Name: Ra

Origin: Egyptian

Known as: God of the Sun and father of all the Egyptian gods

Family: Father of the primordial gods Shu and Tefnut

Ra (sometimes known as Re) was considered both the god of the Sun and the Sun itself. Rather than a chariot, he travelled across the sky in boats to bring light and warmth to the world.

At night, Ra descended into the underworld to battle the serpent Apophis, who sought to prevent the Sun from rising and therefore destroy all life on Earth.

With the head of a falcon and crowned with a solar disk, Ra was the creator god responsible for bringing the gods and mortals into existence. His importance is reflected in his merging with other deities, such as Amun to create the all-powerful god Amun-Ra.

Worshipped throughout Egypt, the city of Heliopolis was one of the primary centres of the cult of this ancient Egyptian god.

Name: Aten

Origin: Egyptian

Known as: The solar disk

Family: Aten has no creation myth or family mentioned in mythology

During the reign of the pharaoh Akhenaten (c1353-1336 BC), the Egyptian pantheon was thrown out, including the chief deity Amun, and a little-known cult was established to be the only god. That was Aten, the solar disc.

Akhenaten (originally called Amenhotep IV) built a new capital called Akhetaten (now Amarna) to be the religious centre of Atenism, and introduced a radical new artform. The Aten would be represented simply as a solar disk with rays extending down – usually towards the pharaoh and his family – ending in hands, symbolising the life-giving energy of the Aten.

After Akhenaten died, his religious revolution was deemed heresy: the old gods were restored and the Aten removed.

Honourable mentions:

Khepri | God of the morning sun, represented with the head of a scarab beetle or simply in the form of the scarab beetle itself

African Sun gods

Lisa

Name: Lisa

Origin: West African

Known as: God of the Sun to the Fon people

Family: Twin brother of Mawu (goddess of the moon)

Lisa was worshipped by the Fon people – who lived in Dahomey (now Benin) and parts of what are now Togo, in West Africa – as the embodiment of heat, work and strength. He and his sister Mawu, the goddess of the Moon, were central to the Vodun (Voodoo) tradition, together balancing the day and night.

The mythology sometimes describes Lisa and Mawu as lovers who created the universe together; elsewhere, they are represented as a single being encompassing both male and female.

Lisa was believed to govern the skill of craftmanship, bringing his son Gu to Earth to teach mortals essential skills, such as ironworking, home building and agriculture. In rituals and festivals, he was invoked to bless the fields with sunlight and provide the strength needed for the day’s labour.

Honourable mentions:

Anyanwu | Goddess of the Sun in Igbo mythology, also of good fortune, knowledge, and wisdom

Nzambi | God of the Sun, and supreme deity in traditional Kongo mythology

Aztec Sun gods

Huitzilopochtli

Name: Huitzilopochtli

Origin: Aztec

Known as: God of the Sun and war

Family: Thought to be the son of Coatlicue (Earth goddess)

Also a god of war, Huitzilopochtli was considered one of the most important amongst the Aztec pantheon. So revered, he was the patron of the capital city of Tenochtitlan and the Aztecs even referred to themselves as ‘the people of the Sun’.

According to two different stories in the mythology, Huitzilopochtli was either the son of Ometeotl (the name of a pair of creator deities) or was immaculately conceived by Coatlicue, the Earth goddess.

In one version, he was born fully grown and armoured and immediately fought his brothers and sisters. Huitzilopochtli wielded Xiuhcoatl, the fire serpent, as a weapon.

His name originates from Nahuatl, the main language of the Aztecs, and translates to 'hummingbird of the left’ (Aztecs believed the best warriors were reincarnations of hummingbirds). Huitzilopochtli was often depicted as the bird or a warrior in its feathers.

Tonatiuh

Name: Tonatiuh

Origin: Aztec

Known as: God of the ‘Fifth Sun’

Family: Born through the self-sacrifice of a god, who threw himself in a fire

According to the mythology of the Nahua, Mesoamerican peoples of central Mexico of which the Aztec belonged, it was believed that there had been four cycles of the world. Each of these ‘Suns’ had its own creation and destruction.

Tonatiuh was the ‘Fifth Sun’, the solar deity of the final cycle. He was created and rose into the sky through the self-sacrifice of a weaker god.

Associated with the eagle, he would be born each day at dawn and had to be encouraged by the gods on his travels across the sky, before dying at each sunset. The Aztecs kept him on his journey by daily offerings of blood, so his worship was linked with human sacrifice.

Honourable mentions:

Nanahuatzin | The god, whose name means ‘full of sores’, that threw himself into fire to be transformed into Tonatiuh

Incan Sun gods

Inti

Name: Inti

Origin: Incan

Known as: God of the Sun and patron deity of the Incan empire

Family: Brother of Mama Quilla (goddess of the Moon)

The Inca believed that the Sun god Inti was the direct ancestor of their emperor, the Sapa Inca, and his family. Unsurprisingly, Inti’s cult was imposed across the empire to reinforce the Sapa Inca’s right to rule.

Depicted as a golden disk with rays shining out from his human face, Inti was central to Incan religious practices: the temple dedicated to him, Coricancha in the capital of Cusco, was the most important in the empire; and his festival, Inti Raymi, celebrated at the winter solstice (which in the southern hemisphere is in June), was one of the most significant events in the Incan calendar.

It marked the return of the sun and the renewal of life. The Inca called upon him to control the agricultural cycle, ensuring the growth of crops and the prosperity of the empire.

Honourable mentions:

Illapa | While not a Sun god, the thunder god was the lord of the weather overall

Mayan Sun Gods

Kinich Ahau

Name: Kinich Ahau

Origin: Mayan

Known as: God of the Sun, who controlled disease and drought

Family: Brother of Chaac (god of rain, thunder and lightning) in some mythologies

In Mayan art, Kinich Ahau is seen as an old man with large, square eyes, a hooked nose and a sharpened tooth. He could also be presented as animals associated with power, such as a jaguar or eagle.

Kinich Ahau, like other solar deities, travelled across the sky during the day and descended into the underworld at night. His status can be shown by the names of rulers in Mayan cultures; they would include ‘Kinich’ in their titles to revere the Sun god.

Honourable mentions:

Itzamná | The creator god who resided in the sky as the ruler of day and night

Chinese Sun gods

Xihe

Name: Xihe

Origin: Chinese

Known as: Goddess of the Sun and mother of the Ten Suns

Family: One of the two wives of Di Jun (one of the early Chinese supreme deities)

Xihe would ride her carriage across the sky every day, but she did not bring light to the world herself. The goddess would choose one of her children – the ten Suns, who took the form of three-legged crows and lived in a mulberry tree – to do the task on each day.

According to legend, there once was a time when all ten Suns rose together, causing the Earth to overheat and wither. A skilled archer named Hou Yi had no choice but to shoot down nine of them, leaving one to provide a suitable amount of light and warmth.

Honourable mentions:

Hou Yi | While not a solar deity, the Lord Archer saved the world by shooting down 9 of the 10 Suns

Japanese Sun gods

Amaterasu

Name: Amaterasu

Origin: Japanese

Known as: Goddess of the Sun and the queen of heaven and creation

Family: Daughter of Izanagi (creator god) and elder sister of Tsukuyomi (god of the Moon) and Susanoo (god of storms)

A chief deity in the Shinto religion, Amaterasu – whose name means ‘great divinity illuminating heaven’ – is considered the ancestor of the Japanese imperial family.

According to legend, she retreated into a cave following a dispute with her brother Susanoo, and plunged the world into darkness.

The other gods lured her out by collecting cockerels to crow, hanging a mirror outside the cave and performing a joyous dance, which made Amaterasu curious. When she looked out, she saw her reflection in the mirror, thus restoring sunlight to the world.

Amaterasu is worshipped at the Grand Shrine of Ise, one of the most important Shinto shrines in Japan. Although it has ancient roots, it is never more than 20 years old: beginning in the seventh century, the shrine is rebuilt every 20 years (with some gaps during the Warring State era) to demonstrate the continued importance of Amaterasu.

Honourable mentions:

Amenouzume | Goddess of the dawn, who lured Amaterasu out of the cave with her dancing

Mesopotamian Sun gods

Shamash

Name: Shamash

Origin: Mesopotamian

Known as: God of the Sun and a divine judge

Family: Son of Sin (god of the Moon)

Shamash, known as Utu in Sumerian mythology, was a powerful and all-seeing deity who travelled across the sky by day, observing the world and dispensing justice.

Depicted as a bearded man seated on a throne and holding a rod and ring – symbols of justice and divine authority – Shamash’s role as divine judge meant he was associated with the underworld and divination.

His iconography frequently included a solar disk, reinforcing his role as Sun god, but such was his role in justice that he would also appear in ancient Mesopotamian legal texts. Most famously, Shamash’s image was carved on the Code of Hammurabi, a collection of laws from 18th-century BC Babylon.

Honourable mentions:

Aya | Goddess of the dawn, and the wife of Shamash

Norse Sun gods

Sól

Name: Sól

Origin: Norse

Known as: Goddess of the Sun

Family: Sister of Máni (god of the Moon)

In Norse mythology, after the Norse gods had created the sky they became angry for some reason at Sól or her brother Máni – or their father, Mundilfari – and ordered the pair to guide the Sun and Moon in their predestined paths.

In her task, she rode on a horse-drawn chariot and had to travel at great speed as she was being pursued by a great wolf named Skoll. Her brother was hunted by another wolf, Hati. Their destiny was to be caught by these wolves at Ragnarök, the Norse end of the world.

Honourable mentions:

Baldr | God of light and radiance, known for his beauty and wisdom

Dagr | Personification of day in Norse mythology